Limitation of Ratio Analysis

Limitation of Ratio compendLimitation of Ratio Analysis Learning Objective Explain to the participants on the limitation of balance analysis. authorized Terms Creative write up. accounting Policies.As we have alredy discussed, it is signifi sightt to comparability in order to be competent to analyse and to be able to comment and subsequently recommend in order that a melody is as efficient as possible.Limitations of Ratios report Information diverse Accounting PoliciesThe choices of accounting policies whitethorn distort inter association comparisons. Example IAS 16 al slumps valuation of as inureds to be based on either give noticed amount or at depreciated historical cost. The business whitethorn opt not to revalue its asset because by doing so the depreciation charge is going to be high and get out result in lower profit. Creative accounting The businesses apply creative accounting in trying to show the recrudesce pecuniary performance or position which can be lead astray to the users of financial accounting. Like the IAS 16 menti peerlessd above, requires that if an asset is revalued and in that location is a followup deficit, it has to be charged as an expense in income statement, but if it results in review surplus the surplus should be credited to revaluation reserve. So in order to improve on its profitability level the company may select in its revaluation programme to revalue solely those assets which allow result in revaluation surplus leaving those with revaluation deficits still at depreciated historical cost.Information problems Ratios argon not determinate measuresRatios need to be interpreted c arefully. They can declare oneself clues to the companys performance or financial situation. But on their own, they cannot show whether performance is bang-up or bad.Ratios require some quantitative information for an informed analysis to be made. Outdated information in financial statementThe figures in a set of accounts are homogeneously to be at least several months push through of date, and so might not give a proper trait of the companys current financial position. Historical costs not suitable for finis making IASB Conceptual framework recommends businesses to use historical cost of accounting. Where historical cost convention is used, asset valuations in the balance sheet could be misleading. Ratios based on this information go out not be in truth useful for decision making. Financial statements certain summarised informationRatios are based on financial statements which are summaries of the accounting records. Through the summarisation some important information may be left out which could have been of relevance to the users of accounts. The dimensions are based on the summarised year end information which may not be a true reflection of the oerall historic period results. Interpretation of the ratioIt is difficult to generalise about whether a particular ratio is good or bad. For exam ple a high current ratio may indicate a strong liquidity position, which is good or excessive cash which is bad. Similarly Non current assets turn all over ratio may denote either a firm that uses its assets efficiently or whiz that is under capitalised and cannot afford to buy enough assets. Comparison of performance over time Price transmutesInflation renders comparisons of results over time misleading as financial figures will not be deep down the same levels of purchasing power. Changes in results over time may show as if the go- forth has ameliorate its performance and position when in fact after adjusting for inflationary changes it will show the different picture. Technology changesWhen comparing performance over time, there is need to consider the changes in technology. The movement in performance should be in aura with the changes in technology. For ratios to be more meaningful the enterprise should compare its results with another of the same level of technology as this will be a good basis measurement of efficiency. Changes in Accounting policyChanges in accounting policy may affect the comparison of results among different accounting years as misleading. The problem with this situation is that the directors may be able to manipulate the results through the changes in accounting policy. This would be do to avoid the effects of an old accounting policy or gain the effects of a new one. It is likely to be done in a sensitive period, perhaps when the businesss profits are low. Changes in Accounting standardAccounting standards offers standard ways of recognising, measuring and presenting financial transactions. Any change in standards will affect the reporting of an enterprise and its comparison of results over a number of years. Impact of seasons on tradingAs stated above, the financial statements are based on year end results which may not be true reflection of results year round. Businesses which are affected by seasons can choose the b est time to produce financial statements so as to show better results. For example, a tobacco growing company will be able to show good results if accounts are produced in the interchange season. This time the business will have good inventory levels, receivables and beach balances will be at its highest. While as in set seasons the company will have a lot of liabilities through the obtain of farm inputs, low cash balances and even nil receivables. Inter-firm comparison Different financial and business risk profileNo two companies are the same, even when they are competitors in the same industry or market. Using ratios to compare one company with another could provide misleading information. Businesses may be within the same industry but having different financial and business risk. i company may be able to obtain bank loans at reduced rates and may show high railroad train levels dapple as another may not be successful in obtaining cheap rates and it may show that it is ope rating at low gearing level. To un informed analyst he may feel like company two is better when in fact its low gearing level is because it can not be able to secure advertize funding. Different capital structures and sizeCompanies may have different capital structures and to fetch comparison of performance when one is all equity financed and another is a geared company it may not be a good analysis. Impact of Government influenceSelective application of government incentives to various companies may alike distort intercompany comparison. One company may be given a tax holiday while the other within the same line of business not, comparing the performance of these two enterprises may be misleading. window dressingThese are techniques applied by an entity in order to show a strong financial position. For example, MZ Trucking can borrow on a two year basis, K10 Million on 28th December 2003, holding the proceeds as cash, then pay off the loan ahead of time on 3rd January 2004. This can improve the current and diligent ratios and make the 2003 balance sheet look good. However the improvement was strictly window dressing as a week later the balance sheet is at its old position. Ratio analysis is useful, but analysts should be aware of these problems and make adjustments as necessary. Ratios analysis conducted in a mechanical, unthinking manner is dangerous, but if used intelligently and with good judgement, it can provide useful insights into the firms operations.

Alternative Communication Intervention In Children Health And Social Care Essay

ersatz Communication Intervention In Children Health And Social Cargon under stoolChildren and y step uphfulness who sustain a traumatic brain injury (TBI) and/or spinal anaesthesia cord injury (SCI) whitethorn do temporary or permanent disabilities that strickle their row, actors line and colloquy abilities. Having a way to exit nooky service reduce a childs confusion and anxiety, as salutary as en able them to introduce to a greater extent sprightlyly in the reclamation process and thus, rec everyplace from their injuries. In addition, effective chat with family, c be ply, peers, teachers and friends is inhering to long-run recovery and positive outcomes as children with TBI and SCI atomic number 18 integrated arse into their communities. This article describes how renewal squads aro practice make mathematical function of augmentative and preference confabulation (AAC) and assistive technologies (AT) to pledge the confabulation of children recovering f rom TBI and SCI over time.1. IntroductionChildren and youth who sustain a difficult traumatic brain injury (TBI) and/or a spinal cord injury (SCI) very much experience sequealae that squeeze out affect their superpower to communicate effectively. In aboriginal phases of recovery, many children with TBI and SCI ar unable to sensual exercise their linguistic process or gestures for a variety of aesculapian reasons related to their injuries. As a result, they seat benefit from augmentative and alternative parley (AAC) interventions that specifically address their capacity to communicate basic inevitably and feelings to checkup personnel and family members and ask and respond to questions. AAC approaches may include having regain to a nurses call signal strategies to establish a consistent yes no chemical reaction techniques that help a child eye point to child interchangeable messages low-tech boards and books that foster moveion with family members and faculty in tercourse boards with pictures or nomenclature and speech generating devices (SGDs) with pre coursemed messages, such as I hurt Come here, jockstrap me please Whens mom coming?As children with TBI and SCI recover from their injuries, many no longer pull up stakes need AAC. However, around children face equalizer motor, speech, language and cognitive impairments that affect their ability to communicate face to face, write or use mainstream dialogue technologies (e.g., information processing trunks, email, phones, etc.). A few may petition AAC and assistive applied science (AT) end-to-end their lives. Having nettle to communication through AAC and AT enables these children to participate sprightlyly in the replenishment process and in the end, in their families and communities. Without an ability to communicate effectively, children with TBI and SCI volition face insurmountable barriers to education, employment, as fountainhead as establishing and maintaining relation ships and taking on preferred brotherly roles as liberals.All AAC interventions aim to brave a childs current communication ineluctably go planning for the succeeding(a) (Beukelman and Mirenda, 2005). However, the product line of AAC treatment for children who sustain TBIs and SCIs is different because of the nature of their injuries is different. In addition, the focus of AAC interventions volition differ for very young children (e.g., shaken baby syndrome) who are bonny developing speech and language and for those who were literate and have some fellowship of the world prior to their injuries (e.g., 16 year-old involved injured in a motor vehicle accident). For young children, the AAC police squad go away focus on developing their language, literacy, academic, emotional, and social skills, as well as ensuring that they have a way to communicate with family members and refilling mental faculty. For older children, AAC interventions build on proportionality skills an d abilities to help remediate speech, language and communication impairments as well as provide compensatory strategies that bread and thatter face-to-face interactions and ultimately communication crosswise distances (phone, email) with police squad members, family and friends. AAC intervention goals seek to promote a childs active interest in family, education, community and leisure activities and aim to support the establishment and maintenance of plenteous social ne tworks (Blackstone, Williams, and Wilkins, 2007 Light and Drager, 2007 Smith, 2005). fleck a variety of AAC tools, strategies and techniques are visible(prenominal) that offer communication access code, successful AAC interventions for children with TBI and SCI in like manner require that medical exam supply, family members and ultimately community personnel k instanter how to support the use of AAC strategies and technologies because the needs of these children transfigure over time. Speech-language dia gnosticians, nurses, occupational therapists, physical therapists, physiatrists, pediatricians, and rehabilitation engineers work collaboratively with the childs family and community-based professionals to establish, maintain and update effective communication systems. Ultimately, the goal is for children to take on desired adult roles AAC shadownister help them realize these goals.2. paediatric TBI and AACAAC intervention for pediatric patients with TBI and severe communication challenges is an essential, complex, ongoing and dynamic process. AAC is essential to support the unique communication needs of children who are unable to communicate effectively. It is complex because of the residual cognitive deficits that often persist and because many children with TBI have co-existing speech, language, ocular, and motor control deficits (Fager and Karantounis, 2010 Fager and Beukelman, 2005). AAC interventions are ongoing and dynamic (Fager, Doyle, and Karantounis, 2007) because chi ldren with TBI experience many changes over time and endure quadruple transitions. Light et al. (1988) described the ongoing, three-year AAC intervention of an adolescent who progressed through some(prenominal) AAC systems and ultimately regained functional speech. DeRuyter and Donoghue (1989) described an individual who used many sincere devices and a sophisticated AAC system over a seven calendar month period. Additional reports describe the recovery of natural speech up to 13 years post on bound (Jordan, 1994 Workinger and Netsell, 1992).2.1. AAC Assessment and InterventionAssessment tools coffin nail help identify and describe the cognitive, language and motor deficits of patients with TBI and provide a framework for AAC interventions. The pediatric Rancho collection plate plate of Cognitive Functioning (adapted by staff at Denver Childrens Hospital in 1989) is based on the Ranchos Los Amigos Scale of Cognitive Functioning (Hagan, 1982). control panel 1 describes general directs of recovery, based on the Pediatric Rancho Lost Amigos Scale, and gives examples of AAC intervention strategies that rehabilitation team ups can employ across the levels as described below. takes IV and V. AAC Goal Shaping responses into communicationIn the early phase of recovery, pediatric patients at trains IV and V on the Pediatric Rancho Scale are often in the PICU, the ICU, acute infirmary or acute rehabilitation environment. At Level V (no response to stimuli) or Level IV (generalized response to stimuli) AAC interventions focus on identifying modalities that children can use to provide consistent and reliable responses. For example, staff can use simple switches (e.g., Jelly Bean, Big Red and Buddy release from AbleNet), latch-timers (e.g., PowerLink from AbleNet) and genius message devices (e.g. BIGmack and Step Communicator from AbleNet) to support early communication (see gameboard 1 for some examples). Because childrens early responses may be reflexive q uite an than intentional, the family and medical/rehabilitation team can in like manner use AAC technologies to encourage more consistent responses. Families provide valuable input about the kinds of music, games and positron emission tomography tampers a child finds motivating. The team can then use these items to parent physical responses from the child. For example, if the family place the battery- becomed toy Elmo from Sesame Street, the rehabilitation team might enter Elmo singing a Sesame Street numbers and then observe to see if the childs responds. If the child arrays to turn her decimal point when Elmo sings, the team might attach a switch with a battery interrupter to the toy and ask the child to hit the button and play the Elmo song. In doing so, the team can learn several things. For example, the team may none that a child is able to follow commands, indicating cognitive recovery. The team may excessively begin to consider alternative access systems for child ren with severe physical impairments, i.e., head movement may become a reliable way to operate an AAC device or computer in the future. It is difficult to predict whether a child will recover natural speech during early stages of recovery.2.2. philia Levels II and III AAC Goals Increase ability to communicate with staff, family and friends and support active participation in treatmentPediatric patients at Levels III (localized response to sensory stimuli) and II (responsive to environment) become more shut awayd in their rehabilitation programs as they recover some cognitive, language and physical abilities. During this phase, long-term deficits that affect communication become apparent (e.g., dysarthria, apraxia, aphasia, attention, initiation, memory, vision, spasticity). Dongilli, Hakel, and Beukelman (1992) and Ladtkow and Culp (1992) also report natural speech recovery in adults after TBI at the middle stages of recovery. Continued trustingness on AAC strategies and technolo gies is typically due to persistent motor speech and/or severe cognitive-language deficits resulting from the injury (Fager, Doyle, and Karantounis, 2007).AAC interventions at these levels focus on apply a childs approximately consistent and reliable response to communicate messages, encourage active participation in the rehabilitation process and increase interactions with family and staff. AAC interventions always take into account the childs festeringal level and interests. mesa 1 gives some examples of AAC technologies sedulous during these Levels III and II. For example, Jessica was admitted to the hospital at 18-months with shaken baby syndrome. At Level II, she began responding to her parents by smiling and laughing and also began to manipulate toys with her non-paralyzed hand when staff placed a toy deep down her intact field of vision. However, she did non exhibit any speech or imitative vocal behaviors and her speech-language pathologist storied a severe verbal apra xia. Nursing staff and family members observe that Jessica seemed frustrated by her inability to express herself. Prior to her injury, she could name over 30 objects (toys, pets, favorite cartoon characters) and was beginning to put two record book sentences together (Momma bye-bye, Daddy syndicate).AAC interventions included the introduction of a BIGmack, a single-message speech generating device (SGD) that enabled the staff and family members to record a message that Jessica could then pronounce during her daily activities(e.g., more, bye-bye, turn page). Because the BIGmack is a colorful, vauntingly and easy to access SGD, Jessica was able to press the button despite her fastness bound spasticity and significant visual field cut. Within a month, Jessica had progressed to utilise a MACAW by Zygo, an SGD with eight-location pass over that staff programmed with words she had used prior to her injury (e.g., mommy, daddy, more, bottle, book, bye-bye). Staff also designed add itional overlays to encourage her language development by providing diction that enabled her to construct two-word combinations (e.g., more crackers). Jessica began to express herself at a developmentally sequester level, but she had residual memory deficits that required cuing and support from her communication partners. For example, initially, she did not recall how to use her AAC system from session to session so staff needed to reintroduce it each time. However, after several months, Jessica began to search for her SGD to communicate. Jessica, like many children with TBI at this level, was able to learn procedures and strategies with repetition and support (Ylvisaker and Feeney, 1998).2.3. Level II and Level I. AAC Goals Support transitions, recommend AAC strategies and technologies for use at substructure and in the communityAs pediatric patients transition from Level II (responsive to environment) to Level I (oriented to self and surroundings), they often move from an acute rehabilitation speediness to an outpatient ambit, home or a rush facility. Thus, before discharge, AAC teams will conduct a formal AAC assessment and provide long-term recommendations for AAC strategies and technologies that can enable children to be integrated successfully back into community environments. Table 1 illustrates the types of AAC technologies and strategies employed at Levels II and I, as described below.For children who carry to use AAC and AT when they return to their communities, the rehabilitation team identifies a long-term communication advocate. This person, often a family member, becomes actively involved in AAC fostering and collaborates with rehabilitation staff to prepare the childs educational staff, extended family and other caregivers (Fager, 2003). Having a link between the rehabilitation team and community professionals is essential because most teachers and community-based clinicians have limited experience working with children with TBI and may need support to manage the cognitive and physical deficits often associated with TBI. For example, McKenzie, a 12 year-old with a severe TBI secondary to a car accident, was quadriplegic with severe spasticity and no upper extremity control. She also had cortical blindness and significant communication and cognitive impairments. As she recovered, McKenzie used a variety of AAC systems (e.g., thumbs up/down for yes no, two BIGmacks to communicate choices, and a scanning Cheap Talk by modify Devices with four messages to participate in structured activities). Prior to discharge, the rehabilitation team conducted a formal SGD evaluation and recommended the Vmax by DynaVox Mayer-Johnson, a articulation output device. McKenzie was able to access the device via a head switch attach to the side of the head rest on her wheelchair. Using auditory scanning, she could cause and retrieve messages. Because she was literate prior to her injury and could mum spell, the staff set up her devic e to include an alphabet page as well as several pages with pre-programmed messages containing basic/urgent care needs, jokes and social comments. Family and friends participated in her rehabilitation and well-educated to use tactile and verbal prompts to help her participate in conversational exchanges. Due to her residual cognitive deficits, however, McKenzie had difficulty initiating conversations and memory where pre-stored messages were in her device. When prompted, she would respond and initiate questions and could film in conversations over multiple turns. Over time, she began to participate in meaningful, social interactions, often spelling out two-three word novel phrases using her alphabet page objet dart her parents were renovating their home to handle her wheelchair, McKenzie transitioned to a regional care facility that specialized in working with young people with TBI. The acute rehabilitation team identified McKenzies aunt as her AAC advocate because she had partici pated actively in earlier phases of McKenzies recovery, was ingenious with the maintenance (charging, set-up and basic trouble-shooting) of the Vmax and could customize and program new messages into the system. The care facility staff met with McKenzies aunt weekly so they could learn how to support McKenzies use of the SGD. Specific training objectives included maintenance and basic trouble-shooting, set up, switch-placement and how to program new messages to use in specific and motivating activities. Staff learned how to modify the placement of her switch when McKenzie became fatigued or her spasticity increased. Additionally, McKenzies take staff (special education coordinator, speech-language pathologist, occupational therapist, and one of her regular classroom teachers) visited McKenzie at the rehabilitation and the care facilities to help prepare for her return home and learned how to support her in school, given her physical and cognitive limitations.2.4. AAC themes in TBIW hen working with pediatric patients with TBI, three AAC themes emerge.1. Recovery from TBI is dynamic and takes place over time. In early stages of recovery, most children with TBI have physical, speech, language and cognitive deficits that affect their communication skills. Depending on the nature and severity of their injuries, however, most recover functional speech, although some will have life-long residual speech, language and communication deficits. Acute rehabilitation teams can employ AAC interventions to support communication, as well as monitor the childs ever-changing communication abilities and needs over time.2. The cognitive-linguistic challenges associated with TBI make AAC interventions particularly challenging for rehabilitation staff, as well as for families, friends and school personnel. Because of the complex nature of the residual disabilities caused by TBI, collaborations among rehabilitation specialists, family members and community-based professionals are es sential. Some children with TBI require AAC supports throughout their lives. Family members, friends and school personnel ra confide know how to manage their severe memory, attention and/or initiation deficits that can affect long-term communication outcomes.3. There is a need to plan carefully for transitions. Children with TBI will undergo many transitions. While research describing these transitions in children is not available, reports of the experiences of adults with TBI describe multiple transitions over time. Penna et al. (2010) noted that adults with TBI undergo a significant number of residence transitions particularly in the first year following injury and Fager (2003) described the different transitions (acute care hospital, outpatient rehabilitation, skilled nursing facility, home with adult daycare services, and eventually support living) for an adult with severe TBI experienced over a decade, documenting significant changes in his cognitive abilities, as well as his communication partners and support staff. Children with TBI are likely to experience even more transitions over their lifetimes.3. Pediatric SCI and AACPediatric patients with SCI often have intact cognitive skills and severe physical disabilities that can interfere with their ability to speak. In addition, they often have significant medical complications and may be left with severe motor impairments that make it difficult, if not impossible, for them to write, access a computer or participate in the sport, online and removed social networking activities embraced by todays youth (e.g., texting, email). A subgroup may also present with a concomitant TBI carry on as a result of the fall, car accident or other traumatic event that has changed their lives. For them, AAC treatment must(prenominal) reflect guidelines that take into account both SCI and TBI.As with TBI, the growth and development inherent in childhood and adolescence and the unique manifestations and complications ass ociated with SCI require that management be both developmentally based and directed to the individuals special needs (Vogel, 1997). Initially, AAC interventions typically focus on ensuring face-to-face communication when speech is unavailable or very difficult over the long term, however, enabling children to write and fix in educational, recreational and pre-vocational activities using computers and other mainstream technologies becomes the focus.3.1. AAC Assessment and InterventionThe ASIA quantity neurological classification of SCI from the American Spinal Injury Association and world(prenominal) Medical Society of Paraplegia (2000) is a tool that rehabilitation teams frequently use to assess patients with SCI because it identifies the level of injury and associated deficits at each level. This can help guide the rehabilitation teams clinical decision-making process for AAC interventions. As shown in Table 2, children with high tetraplegia (C1-C4 SCI) have limited head control and are often ventilator dependent. They often require eye, head, and/or voice control of AAC devices and mainstream technologies to communicate. While switch scanning is an option for some, it requires higher-level cognitive abilities, endurance, and vigilance and may be inappropriate for very young children and those who are medically fragile (Wagner and Jackson, 2006 McCarthy et al., 2006 Peterson, Reichle, and Johnston, 2000 horn and Jones, 1996). Children with low tetraplegia (C5-T1 SCI) demonstrate limited proximal and distal upper extremity control. If fitted with splints that support their arm and hand, some are able to use in particular adapted mouse options (e.g., joystick mouse, switch-adapted mouse, trackball mouse), large button or unaffixed touch keyboards and switches to control technology. These children are also candidates for head tracking and voice control of AAC devices due to the fatigue and physical effort involved in using their upper extremities. For exam ple, a multi-modal access method to AAC technology and computers may include voice control to dictate text, hand control of the cursor with an reconciling mouse to perform other computer functions (e.g., open programs), and an adaptive keyboard to correct errors that are generated while dictating text. This multi-modal approach can be more efficient and less frustrating than using voice control but for these children. Table 2 provides examples of appropriate access options to AAC and mainstream technologies.3.2. Supporting face-to-face communicationFor children with high tetraplegia, being dependent on mechanical ventilation is scare especially when they are unable to tolerate a talking valve (Padman, Alexander, Thorogood, and Porth, 2003). Thus, providing these children with a way to communicate is essential to their recovery and sense of well-being. As children with visit levels of injury are weaned from a ventilator, they may experience trim down respiratory control and be u nable to speak (Britton and Baarslag-Benson, 2007). Medical specialists can provide access to AAC strategies and technologies, which enable these children to communicate their wants, needs and feelings throughout the day. This allows them to interact with direct care staff, participate in their rehabilitation process, and maintain relationships with family and friends.Pediatric rehabilitation teams may use a range of AAC strategies and technologies to support face-to-face communication in children with SCI. Some examples include low tech communication boards used with eye gaze or eye pointing, partner-dependent scanning, an electro larynx with intra-oral adaptor, or laser light pointing to a target message or garner on a communication board (Britton and Baarslag-Benson, 2007 Beukelman and Mirenda, 2005). Introducing AAC and AT technologies early in the recovery process, particularly for children who demonstrate high tetraplegia, will also begin to familiarize them with approaches t hey may need to rely on extensively throughout their lives, even after speech returns.For example, Jared, a 17-year-old high school senior, sustained a SCI in a skiing accident at the C2 level. In addition to his injuries, he developed pneumonia and a severe coccyx affront during his hospitalization, which lengthened his hospital check-out procedure. He was unable to tolerate a unidirectional speaking valve due to the severity of his pneumonia and decreased oxygenation during valve trials. Although Jared had minimal head movement, he was able to control an AccuPoint head tracker to access his home laptop computer and spell out messages he could then speak aloud using speech synthesis software. He used his AAC system to indicate his medical needs to caregivers and later reported that having the ability to communicate helped alleviate some of the anxiety he experienced due to his condition and extended hospitalization. subsequently Jared recovered the ability to use a talking valv e, his work with the AccuPoint focus on computer access to meet pen and social communication needs. Once his wound had healed, he was able to return home 11 months later. At that time, all of his classmates had graduated. Using the AccuPoint, Jared was able to complete his GED at home and enrolled in online classes at the local community college.3.3. Supporting written communication and educationAt the time of their injury, some pediatric patients with SCI are pre-literate, others are developing literacy skills, and others have highly developed literacy skills. However, most children with tetraplegia will require the use of assistive technologies to support written communication because their injuries preclude them from using a pencil and/or typing on a traditional computer keyboard. In a report describing the educational participation of children with spinal cord injury, 89% of the children with tetraplegia relied on AAC to support written communication needs (Dudgeon, Massagli, and Ross, 1996).For example, soap, a 6 year-old boy who suffered a C6 SCI after an All Terrain vehicle accident, was study age-appropriate sight words and developing his ability to write single words prior to his injury. After the initial recovery period, formal test revealed that Max had no residual cognitive or language impairments. However, he faced significant barriers not only to his continued development of age-appropriate reading and writing skills, but also to his ability to learn and do math, social studies, science, play games, use a cell phone, etc. Due to his tetraplegia, he needed ways to access text and write, calculate, draw and so on. Max learned to access a computer using a large button keyboard, joystick mouse, and adaptive hand-typers (cuffs with an attached stylus that fit on the ulnar side of the hand and allow the user to press the keys of a keyboard) to support writing activities and computer access. During rehabilitation, he was able to continue with his school assignment by developing the skills to use the technology and keep up with his classmates. He returned home during the summer and participated in an intense home tutoring program. By the fall, he was able to join his classmates and was able to perform at grade level in all classes. Essential to Maxs future educational success and development, as well as his future employment, may well depend on his ability to write, calculate and perhaps even draw using a variety of assistive technologies that support communication.3.4. Support social participation and pre-vocational activities entrance fee to assistive and mainstream technologies not only relieves participation in education, but also has implications for future employment as these children transition into adulthood. Assistive and mainstream technologies are now available at modest cost that can help individuals with SCI to flush for functional limitations, overcome barriers to employability, enhance technical capacities an d computer utilization, and improve ability to compete for gainful employment In addition, these technologies also provide access to life-long learning, recreational activities and social networking activities. Specifically, computers are described as great equalizers for individuals with SCI to engage in employment opportunities and distant communication (McKinley, TewksBury, Sitter, Reed, and Floyd, 2004).Social participation in the current technological age includes more than face-to-face communication. Social participation has expanded with the popularity of social networking sites (e.g., Facebook and MySpace), video web-based communication (e.g., Skype) and instant communication and pass (e.g., Twitter). Advances in the field of AAC have allowed individuals with the most severe injuries access computer technologies to engage in these social communication activities. For example, Crystal was a 10-year-old who sustained a C1 SCI due to a fall. Crystals injury left her with no he ad/neck control and her only consistent access method to computerized technology was through eye tracking. With an ERICA eye gaze system from DynaVox Mayer-Johnson, Crystal quickly became independent with computer access. She emailed and texted her friends and family daily, communicated via her Facebook account, and engaged in online gaming programs with her friends and siblings. This technology allowed her to begin to communicate again with her school friends while she was still undergoing acute rehabilitation. Maintaining these social networks is an essential component to emotional adjustment children with SCI go through after sustaining a severe injury (Dudgeon, Massagli, and Ross, 1997). Additionally, Crystals friends began to understand that while her impairments were severe, she was essentially the same person with the same interests, humor, goals, and expectations as before her injury.3.5. AT/AAC themes in SCIWhen working with pediatric patients with SCI, three AAC themes eme rge.1. For those with high tetraplegia, AAC may facilitate face-to-face as well as distant and written communication needs, depending on the developmental level of the child. Introducing AAC technology early, when face-to-face communication support is needed, helps the child become familiar with the technology they will need to rely on after natural speech has recovered.2. Return to an educational environment is a primary goal with many children with tetraplegia returning to school within an average of 62 days post discharge (Sandford, Falk-Palec, and Spears, 1999). Development of written communication skills is an essential component to successful educational completion and future vocational opportunities (McKinley, Tewksbury, Sitter, Reed, and Floyd, 2004).3. Introduction to methods of written and electronic communication provides an opportunity for patients with SCI to engage in social networks through email, texting, and social networking sites. As these children with severe phy sical disabilities face a life time of potential medical complications (Capoor and Stein, 2005), the ability to maintain and develop new social connections via electronic media allow them to stay connected during times when their medical conditions require them to be house or hospital-bound.4. ConclusionCommunication is essential for continued development of cognitive, language, social, and emotional skills. Children with TBI and SCI have physical and/or cognitive-language deficits that interfere with typical communication abilities. Their communication needs are supported through AAC strategies and technologies. A myriad of technology options are available that not only support face-to-face interactions, but evenly important distant social networking and educational activities. AAC interventions in the medical setting that not only support communication of basic medical needs, but also facilitate engagement in social, educational, and pre-vocational activities will result in succe ssful transition to home, school and community environments for these children.

The Emergence Of The Role Theory

The Emergence Of The subroutine hypothesis type possible action is a conceptual framework with long narrative in the field of Foreign insurance analysis. In order to rationalise and under give birth the contrary insurance of nation body politics, the affair surmise counseles on the reasoning of secreteior(a) political elites, their explanation of the suppress case trunk and their witness e bring ups berth at heart this larger system. Despite its conceptual stringency, methodological desolation and rich observational applications, the favorable function possibleness seems to be neglected by the main stream scholars. division theory as we said is a long established conceptual tool for the global indemnity analysis. succession the eccentric theory analytical potential is high, only recently we fork out witnessed its revival. utilization theory first attracted attention in the contrasted policy literature after the publication of Holstis1study of field of study procedure caprices. function theory had been in development for nearly four decades in Sociology, fond Psychology and Anthropology by this time. Holsti didnt import much of the conceptual or suppositious language associated with percentage theory. He chose to direction on the simple stem that the Self, in this case the leaders of the state may hold a limit of beliefs or images about the identity of the state. Also, a well-disposed psychologist of the sociological variety2suggested that Holstis article may well be an ensample where acceptance a theory has paid off. These subject argona use conceptions were shaped the way that a state acted by it in the burynational system take aim.The neutral of this paper is to present a usage theory as a theoretical and conceptual tool for the analysis of the foreign policy. This paper provide divide into parts. First part introduces the intellectual sources and inspiration of the consumption theory. The mho part introduc es the assumptions of the office staff theory, and then disaster mention the key concepts runed by the theoretical conceptual framework of the office staff theory. The third part summarizes the reprimand of global resemblances theorists towards earnulation of the function theory. The fourth part explores shortly how we can integrate foreign policy analysis and external congenator by means of fictitious character theory.The emergence of the division surmisal and its intellectual sourcesRole theory was first introduced in 1970 by Kalevi Holsti in his article study Role Conceptions in the Study of Foreign Policy. In 1970, Holsti criticized the unnecessarily stark(a) shape of the national theatrical habits and too strong pre occupation with national section types relevant to then morphologic conditions such as bloc, leader, satellites, every stretch out(predicate)ies, and non-aligned. Such typology ignores the great set of powers that smaller states play in the system and in divers(prenominal) regions3. At a time of structuralism analysis of foreign policy, Holsti tries to focus the attention of the discip overseas telegram towards the domestic sources of foreign policy bearing.Role theory has been inspied by sociological and sociable psychological theories about the social occasion of undivided in the society4. Holsti drew heavily on Meads typic inter action5long in the beginning Wendt picked symbolic inter action as a core principle of his constructivist theory. Holsti relies on George H. Mead and his study of the opposition of the expression of separatewises on an individualistics self conceptions and his conceptual distinctions between the self and the vary. Symbolic inter action remains the most important source of inspiration for division theorists up until to twenty-four hour period.Social psychological and sociological theories about the role of individual in the society argon applied in the explanation of the way o f the state. Role theorists argue that by providing the adept of purpose of the state in global community, national role conceptions concede the state with a sense of selfhood and identity. Without the sense of identity, individuals cant order their environments and they will find that the mixer fashion becomes difficult to understand and manage6. According to Chaftez, the same process occurs within the states.In this sense, role theory is just a nonher example of human theory7. It is built around an anthropomorphic assumption that we can puke an analogy between individuals in the society and the state. This assumption around would utter chicanery allows us to import social psychological and sociological theories into the disciplines of international relations and foreign policy analysis. At the same time the role theory steers clear of the trap of treating states as virtually kind of one(a) actors. After explaining the origin of role theory and knowing the main scholars a nd intellectuals ideas of the theory. Ill explain the main assumptions that theory depend on. Theoretical assumption of the role theoryThis part tries to identify the assumptions of the role theory which atomic number 18 the epistemic and ontological and its position in contemporary theoretical debates. The starting layover is the sort of memory accesses to the study of foreign policy by Walter Carlsnaes8. In line with the categories developed by Hollis and smith9, Carlsnaes distinguishes four basic approaches to the study of foreign policy according to their epistemological assumptions which are objectivism versus interpretativism and ontological assumptions versus individualism.Objectivist holistic approach such as various strands of realism and neo realism convolution a structural perspective on the foreign policy. Objectivist individualist approaches such as bureaucratic politics approaches and liberal approach see the foreign policy from the agency based perspective. On the intersection between holistic theory and interpretativism lie the approaches such as social constructivism or discursive approaches representing the social institutional perspective.Hollis and Smith distinguish explanation and correspondence as two basic epistemological positions. Explanatory approach is inspired by indwelling sciences and looks for causal relations within the social reality. On the other cheek interpretivists rely on reconstructing inter subjective meaning of that expression for the subjects of interests. The finish of interpretativism is to reconstruct and understand the way people make sense of the social reality and on this ground understand the behavior of individuals and groups.While some authors argue that the two theoretical questions are interrelated as ontological position predestined the epistemological choice10, Carlsnaes agrees with Hollis and Smith that ontology doesnt entail epistemology and consequently we can distinguish four basic combi nations of theoretical perspectives.After that, itll be better to explain the meaning of the two assumptions which are epistemology and ontology in in position information to form the whole image in our minds about the role theory.EpistemologyThe epistemological position of the role theory is quite clear according to Carlsnaes. It is an example of interpretative perspective. Role theory seems to favor domestic sources of foreign policy and at the same time micturaten its roots in symbolic interactionism, role theory produces interpretative knowledge quite a than casual explanations. Role theory allows us to reconstruct the meaning attributed to national role by the domestic elite individual national foreign policy makers11. Carlsnaes sort shows the original analytical intentions of those who formulate the role theory. According to Stephen pram, role theory offers a thick description. The theoretical function of role theory isnt codifying plagiarize regularities but to make thic k description possible, not to generalize across cases but to generalize within them. In line with its epistemological underlying, role theory is more suitable for answering the How possible questions rather than the wherefore questions.Role theory follows the principles of interpretative which examine the background of social and dianoetic practices and meanings which make possible the foreign policy practices as well as the social actors themselves, how meanings are produced and bandageed to various social subjects and objects thus constituting limited interpretive disposition which create certain possibilities and buy food others.OntologyWalter Carlsnaes, following Hollis and Smith distinguishes two basic ontological positions holism and individualism. Holism holds that the effects of social social organisations cant be reduced to severally existing agents and their interactions, and that these effects accommodate the construction of agents in both causal and constitutive senses12. The dynamics of social systems can always be tracked to the evolutionary changes on the level of self reproducing structures13.On the other cheek individualists claim that individuals are ontologically primary, all social phenomena as institutions, norms and cultue are intended or unintended consequences of mass behavior of the individuals.Social scientific explanations should be reducible to the properties or interactions of independently existing individuals. Walter Carlsnaes puts the role theory unambigously into the individualist box. The role theoretical analyzes focus on the reasoning of individual national foreign policy makers. Role theory exemplifies the bottom up individualist interpretative approach which is relate to understand decisions from the standpoint of the decision makers by reconstructing their reasons. Holsti and most of the empirical applications of his conceptual framework didnt incorporate role prescriptions of external expectation and their emp irical analyses focus solely on the domestic sources of national roles.Conceptual framework of the role theoryIts better to divide the concepts of the role theory into three categories which are theme role conceptions, which are better one role or many roles and other concepts of the role theory. home(a) role conceptionsRole theory explains the foreign policy behavior by exploring the roles played by individual countries in international level. The conceptual framework of the role theory has evolved through time as new concepts have been added. The key concept of the role theory is national role conception introduced by Holsti. He defines the national role conception as the policymakers have definitions of the general kinds of decisions, commitments, rules and actions suitable to their state and its the function of any state that should perform on a chronic basis in the international system or in qualified regional systems. Its the image of the appropriate orientations or functions of their state or in the external environment14. This definition has been widely accepted by other role theorists. For example Ulrich Krotz thirty years later defines the national role conceptions as domestically share views and understandings regarding the proper role and purpose of ones testify state as a social collectivity in the international field of operation15.National role conceptions induce preferences and motivate wills, goals and actions. Often interests and policies that derive from National role conceptions are viewed as normal and right within the various(prenominal) coun evaluate. According to Le Prestre, the articulation of a national role betrays preferences, operations of an image of the world, triggers expectations and influences the definition of the situation and of the open options16. At the same time, national role conceptions make certain interests and policy options intuitively implausible, categorically exclude them as wrong or unacceptable or make t hem unthinkable. National role conceptions are a harvesting of domestic socialization processes and they give meaning and purpose to the foreign policy.One role or many rolesGlen Chafetz notes that actors usually have multiple roles that various in overall grandeur centrality and according to the situation salience. This argument is supported by Holstis original empirical analysis. He confirms that on the lowest level of a day to day politics actors normally have several different roles in the international system and its subsystems. Role theory reflects the arguments made by James evidence and Johan Olsen that humans maintain a repertoire of roles and identities each providing rules of appropriate behavior in situations for which they are relevant17. On the other human face some researchers adopt the single role assumption that the foreign policy as such is on the highest plane guided by a shared, historically constituted role vision of a national mission which is relatively stable and coherent across time, context and circumstances.The analysis of such dominant, overarching shared view, understanding regarding the proper role and purpose of ones own state as a social collectivity in the international arena can be challenged for being overly generalizing. By looking for common thing in the national elites world views and visions of the national mission, we get that one inevitably puts forth differences in the political elites foreign policy priorities.On the other side the single role assumption allows us to trace and explain patterns in the foreign policy of the state and identify ideas discourse shared steady among national politicians with different political preferences in foreign policy making. other concepts of the role theoryEven though the national role conception represents the key concept of the role theory it isnt the only concept. While the national role conception is an egos own conception of his position and function, the term role presc ription has been introduced to capture the alters prescriptions. Holsti delimitate role prescriptions as norms and expectations cultures, societies, institutions or groups attach to particular positions. Role prescriptions emanate from the external environment. In the constructivist language role prescriptions are interred subjectively shared norms and expectations which form the social structure of the international system. Even though the term role prescriptions has been introduced in the role theory since its very beginning, the structural source of the role prescriptions has been sidelined and hardly apply in role theoretical empirical analyzes. It took some time before role theorists acknowledged the analytical value of the role prescriptions and of the structural holding of the role theory. Contemporary role theorists not only acknowledge on a theoretical level that roles are determined both by an actors own conceptions about appropriate behavior and by the expectations or role prescriptions of other actors but they include role prescriptions into the design of their empirical analyses. The comprehension of the role prescriptions into the research design is in line with the tenets of symbolic interactionism and with the constructivist arguments that roles are institutionalized in social structure.Stephen Walker a Sheldon Simon introduced another structural concept into the framework of the role theory role set18. Role sets can be defined as a set of actors positioned as significant others and the web of reciprocal roles in the system. It is a web of mutual expectations which according to Walker and Simon represent a dynamic and interconnected system.The last term is national role performance. National role performance denotes concrete foreign policy decisions and actions. National role performance encompasses the attitudes decisions and actions governments take versus other actors in order to implement the role.Empirical analyzes relying on the conc ept national role conceptions usually rely on the single role assumption, they try to discover domestically shared ideas about the purpose and role of the state in international arena and they try to illustrate. The term role set is simply denoting the set of roles played by a particular state versus the spectrum of other actors explain the continuity in the foreign policy behavior of national role performance.On the other side analyzes operationalizing the concept of role prescriptions are better equipped to capture and explain changes in roles and role performance of foreign policy behavior. For example Walker and Simon claim that actors do from time to time experience role conflict. Role conflict is defined as a situation in which multiple roles are enkindle by competing or conflicting expectations, cues and conceptions. This conflict can have the form of a clash between contradicting national role conceptions and role prescriptions or as a clash between two competing role presc riptions. Walker and Simon convincingly argue that the structure of the role set is a product of this role location process as countries enact roles and attempt to cope with role conflict. If individual member of the system in an attempt to crystalise his own role conflict and changes the role he plays in the system then the whole role set changes as other members of the change their roles and expectations in response.The criticism of the role theoryIn line with Carlsnaes classification of the role theory as an individualist interpretative approach, supranational interchangeableness constructivists treat the role theory as an actor based perspective. black lovage Wendt who praises the role theory for introducing symbolic inter actionism into the field criticizes Holsti for emphasizing the agentic role taking side of the equation at the expense of the structural, role constituting side which strips the concept of role of much of its interest. Similarly Audie Klotz criticizes Ho lsti for excessive focus on individual motivation and cognition at for ignoring the congruence in shared norms which form the backbone of dominant ideas and knowledge. To summarize the critique, International Relation constructivists lambast the role theory for orientation on subjective rather than inter subjective ideas. Role theory seems to forget that national identity and role is not only about inner experience of the state in elite national role conceptions but also about the structure of expectations of the wider international environment role prescriptions.Wendt and other critics are to some finale different and right. The theoretical and conceptual model introduced by Holsti in concomitant incorporates not only actor centered national role conceptions domestically shared visions about the role and purpose of the state in international arena but also structural role prescriptions expectations of others. But this socio psychological theoretical model wasnt in full translat ed into Holstis design for a foreign policy analysis. Even though role the agent society relationship plays a crucial role in the original Meads social psychological theory, Holsti depreciated the impact of society on the formation of national roles in the international context. In his words the expectations of other governments, legal norms expressed through custom, general usage, treaties and available sanctions to enforce. These are ill defined, flexible and weak compared to those that exist in an incorporate society and particularly within formal organizations. In a rather neorealist he also refers to the lack of institutions, acute international conflict and the event of sovereignty as the factors behind the precedence of policymakers role conceptions over outwardly derived role expectations. Here lies the rift between Holsti on one side and the English School and constructivist IR on the other side which has been reproduced in some of the empirical analyses.Integration of FP A and IR through Role TheoryRole theory has an intermittent presence in the study of foreign policy analysis, though it is unfamiliar to scholars in international relations. Yet it is unambiguously suited to integrate IR and FPA. Role theory is premised on explaining and understanding the interaction between agents and structure. This may sound familiar to constructivist IR scholars. Role theory tends to focus on the agent structure debate from a slightly different, albeit complementary and vantage point.Foreign policy analysis and International Relation scholars operate within different analytical traditions. Whereas the former intend the individual to be the ground of International Relation theory, the latter are more apt to proceed from a system level orientation. To be more precise, Foreign policy analysis scholars often use role theory informed by social psychology while International Relation scholars are more firmly grounded in constructivist principles borrowed from sociol ogy. There is a geographical divide the former group of scholars is more prevalent in the United States, whereas the latter tend to be located in europium and elsewhere in the world. Both groups use methods of analysis and standards of evidence that are in keeping with their separate traditions. Some suggest that theories of International transaction cant also be theories of foreign policy.However, others have argued that there is no logical barrier to such a deduction19. We believe that role theory offers the potential for integration, possibly and synthesis. Foreign Policy Analysis for the most part as well as cognitive approaches specifically and International Relation theory generally as well as constructivism specifically stand to benefit from the results of dialogue between the formers largely agent based role theory and the latters largely system based agent structure debate.Although fully synthesizing the two fields may not be feasible, there is so much common ground tha t bridging the divide between these two traditions not only brings them closer together but also advances knowledge in both Foreign Policy Analysis and International transaction theory. thence some efforts aimed at synthesis can already be identified. recollect for example Maulls work on the civilian power role of Germany and lacquer and Harnischs subsequent efforts to place Germanys civilian power role in a constructivist International Relations framework. These two scholars demonstrate the potential for a synthesis of Foreign Policy and International Relations through role theory. Roles like the civilian power role make intuitive sense to policymakers and offer great potential to translate Foreign Policy and International Relations theory into meaningful policy relevant advice.

Abraham Lincolns Second Inaugural Address

Abraham capital of Nebraskas arcsecond startup AddressAbraham capital of Nebraska and His Second Inaugural Address Delivered March 4, 1864Though delivered al closely hotshot hundred fifty years ago, Abraham capital of Nebraskas (1809-1865) second initiatory shout out continues right away to be an exemplary model of leadership, demonstrating its abilities in semi semi governmental unification, cues to nation-building, goals of social gain groundion, and virtu wholey importantly, its expression of the impressiveness of national reconciliation. Given at a cartridge clip when a young American country was comfort reeling from the Civil War, capital of Nebraskas come up to non only reaffirmed the amalgamations exculpation for fighting a watchst cooperator secession and insurgency, but also extended a hand to the formerly seditious states that found themselves structur tout ensembley and economically debilitated by the end of the war. A work of oratory mastery, capital of Nebraskas content was non nearly as important as the address literary devices such as assonance, alliteration, and diction. Then- chair serviceman capital of Nebraskas style and manner of speaking prove that todays politicians and leadership stand much to gain from the model presented at capital of Nebraskas Second Inaugural Address.The opening of Lincolns lowest term saw a distress nation left economically and structurally ravaged. Costing the lives of to a greater extent Americans than dickens war in its short history, the Civil War was the product of a social, economic, and political rift between the Yankee kernel and the insurgent southerly Confederacy of secessionist states. Lincolns Second Inaugural Address thusly had to satisfy several requisites. The talking to had to take special care to retain praise where due to the Northern Union army and its true population without alienating the defeated southern approximately, still reeling from the economic blow te ll apartt to its rural volume by the abolition of sla actually. In order to maintain this delicate balance, Lincoln began the shift in content and tone that would fix the second inaugural address its singular meaning, inclusive to some(prenominal) North and sec (White 61). In his Lincolns Greatest Speech The Second Inaugural, Ronald C. White defines tuberosity of Lincolns masterful understanding and use of both imagery and distinctive phrase, tools that Americas sixteenth professorship would use as part of an overarching strategy emphasizing common actions and emotions (White 61). George Rable stressed the importance of non-political voice communication in Lincolns address in his The Confederate commonwealth A Revolution against Politics, as the Southern population was infamously apolitical in its views and practices.Lincolns diction in that respectfore had to be deliberately indifferent(p) in diction and content so as not to set off the existing tension between North and South, the major differences manifested in the stereotypes of the prototypic agrarian Southerner and politicized, industrial Northerner. Lincoln was less intellectual and studied in tone in delivering his second inaugural address, foc utilize to a greater extent on religious allusions and spiritual reference (White 22). A key feature of the address, Lincolns use of religious overtones was neutral in its acceptance in both the North and South. Though taking great care to give the North credit for accepting the war quite than let it gag (Lincoln, posts 17-18) Lincoln did his best not to give oneself up the South but also took great care not to indemnify the insurgents in the face of his leal Union constituency. To avoid a potentially ruinous venture, Lincoln employ Christianity and references to Protestant texts shared by both national contingents. With such radically different constituents, devotion was the only common ground, resulting in a final address that notorious author and black activist Frederick Douglass found more than akin to a sermon than a speech (White ii).Lincolns religious allusions served to emphasize national single in similarity, as seen in lines 29-30 in his reference to Northern and Southern populations both reading the same intelligence and praying to the same God. Furthermore, Lincoln alluded to religion as a mechanism to eject blame on both party for the violence that transpired following the Confederate secession from the Union. In lines 29-32, Lincoln urges the two halves of the nation to judge not its counterpart lest they in turn be judged. Placing the final victory in an intangible Gods proverbial hands, the politically masterful president did not place the moral imperative in the hands of either North or South, instead referencing the Almightys purposes in line 30 which in turn were assumed in the Judeo-Christian usance incomprehensible by man. The heavily religious cornerstone of the address kept abreast of the apocalyptic undertones of the war. In such a fractious age in American politics, both sides endorsed the distribution of their own versions of the Bible. White colligate the use of religion as a propaganda tool to encourage both reluctant Northern and Southern populations of their only ififications for warWith the beginning of hostilities, Bibles were produced al nigh as quickly as bullets. The American Bible Society do the decision to supply Bibles to all soldiers. At the Bible House, headquarters of the ABS in sensitive York City, sixteen power presses printed and bound the books. The increase in the publication of Bibles was astonishing. In the first year of the Civil War, the American Bible Society printed 370,000 more Bibles than in the previous year (White 102).Lincolns well-nighwhat exploitive use of religious allegory was therefore not a overbold image the hastened production of Bibles reflects both the Union and the Confederacys art of religious justificatio n to override whatever national allegiances would erstwhile sustain war. Lincolns address counteracted this stratagem employed by both North and South, neither negating nor supporting either sides contentions that godly providence remained with their respective side.Richard Striner detailed the importance of the religious factor in Lincolns speech through and through a private letter Lincoln wrote to a contemporary, wherein Lincoln made special note to call down that men are not flattered by being shown that there has been a difference of purpose between the Almighty and them to discard it, however, in this case, is to deny that there is a God governing the world (Striner 251). The letter continued, stating that the concept of mans helplessness under divine will is a truth which Lincoln legitimate opinion needed to be told (Striner 251).Glen Thurows Abraham Lincoln and policy-making Religion portrays Lincoln as a shrewd politician who dumb the power of religious allegory in political speech. Thurow accentuates Lincolns longsightedness in his recollection that Lincolns law partner, William H. Herndon, claimed by and by Lincolns death that the president was not a believer in Christianity and some even testified he was an atheistic (Thurow 12). From this vantage, a different Lincoln is brought to the forefront, his re-election address taking on an entirely new significance. For all his political foresight and social innovation, Lincoln did not challenge the heavily religious tones of Washington. selective of what views he would reveal to the American public, Lincoln was hence an innovator in every sense of the banter, an abolitionist leader of a nation whose agrarian half depended on the innovation of bondage for its sustenance. Moreover, Lincoln was also an atheist president of a religious people, one of the primary reasons his two most impacting speechesthe Second Inaugural Address and the Gettysburg Addresswere so religious in their hyperbole. Mor e than maintaining the faade of Lincolns religious piety, religious speech bolstered what White refers to as the homespun factor (White 15). As a man of humble beginnings, Lincolns appeal as a self-made man sharply contrasted that of the social elite who elected him into power. The apolitical South, patronage its misgivings about Lincolns intentions for the future of America, recognized Lincoln as more than a member of the political bourgeois. Though they perceived his big support from the Northern elite, the Southern contingent of the country also sight his detractors decrying his homespun style of speech and persona as something that gained him the enmity of his Northern opposition. A considerable amount of confusion stemmed from Lincolns religious ambiguities though he never belonged to an effected church, Lincoln much attended services with his wife, Mary. Thurow observes that much of the confusion surrounding Lincolns religion stems from the fact that commentators have trie d to see whether he belonged to the religion of the churches, neglecting the possibility that his speeches were political, not religious, or were religious be stick they were political (Thurow 14). It was not Lincolns lack of professed faith that made him a leader, but rather his understanding of the unifying effect of religion and his carefully thought-out understanding of political religion in America (Thurow 14). Just as the Confederacy would make use of Christianitys most sacred texts to justify everything from break ones backry to secession, so would Lincoln take advantage of religious overtones to unify America and fight national reconciliation and reconstruction.A brilliant orator, Lincolns selection of diction played a significant role in the lecture and conveyance of Lincolns message of national reconciliation and unity.pickings care not to use divisive terms such as we or they to refer to Northern and Southern constituents (respectively), Lincoln used strategical terms repeatedly to emphasize unity no matter the events of the war. In describing the course of the Civil War, Lincoln describes the other side not as an intangible it but with a genuine sense of moral equivalency and respect. in that location are frequent references to the nations civil war as a tragedy for the collective nation. For example, the war is described as the progress of our arms (line 8). In describing what the war meant to the people of the United disk operating systems, Lincoln uses the phrases all repetitively in line 12 (all dreaded it, all sought to avert it), the phrase both (line 16) and the term each (line 25) as well. Though Lincoln does ascribe some separating characteristics to North and South, he does not specifically assign blame, instead ascribing relatively ambiguous terms. Halfway through the address, Lincoln has established the terms of the war and begins to reconcile using the word neither (line 24) to address both the North and the South in using the ne gative neither, the president further reconciled the two parties by removing them both from the realm of culpability. Exonerating both entities, the president continues in the address by portrait opposing struggles in relatively positive terms. For instance, in line 28 the president describes each sides fighting as the center in which both parties sought an easier triumph, giving all complicated moral equivalency to one another. The venerated master politician closes the address with the completed theme of national reconciliation with the quotes malice toward none and charity for all (line 47).The strategic repetition of certain alliteration and assonance serves to emphasize the presidents points. For example, the issue of slavery is evoked as one of great importance by the repeated p sound of peculiar and powerful (line 20). matter reconciliation is reflected by the use of the f sound of line 41, as the president communicates his perception of the American citizen as fondly hop ing and fervently praying for a positive future. Such optimism was a necessity, as it was of the utmost importance that unity and reconciliation for a bright future were touted foremost on the political agenda. Despite the mass havoc, destruction, and loss of human life throughout the rebellious Confederate states, Lincolns address was crafted with an uncharacteristic optimism for the clipping. White notes that afterward four years as a war president, Lincoln could sense of smell ahead to four years as a peace president (White 22). The Civil War was not the only issue addressed, however. North and South were only one party at odds with each other. The fledgeling(a) Republican party Lincoln so aptly represented was super criticized for its disputed reconstruction plan. Moreover, political rifts still remained between Northern Democrats who remained loyal to the Union and the predominantly Southern Democrats who seceded. Thus, the election of 1864 would be one of the most decisiv e in American historyand potentially the most catastrophic (Striner 217).Lincolns political strategies were remarkable, most notably his ability to think up the political goals of many without compromising his base of support. Alexander McClures compiling of letters revealed how politicians with opposing political agendas including antagonistic elements to Lincolns own support approached the president, who made it a point to maintain close and often apparently underground relations with each without offence to the other (McClure 85).Lincolns relish towards national reconciliation stemmed from an abiding faith in the people, in their intelligence and their patriotism the president estimated political results by ascertaining, as removed as possible, the popular bearing of every vital question that was homogeneously to arise, and he formed his conclusions by his keen intuitive perception as to how the people would be likely to deal with the issues (McClure 87).Lincoln was the id eal medical prognosis to handle the fractious political environment of post-bellum America. There were fewer political movements of national importance during Lincolns administration in which he did not actively, although often hiddenly, participate (McClure 85). Crossing political party lines, Lincoln successively galvanized Congress across partisan issues. The Civil War marginalized not only Southerners, but also Northern Democrats who were among the minority of said party to support the Union against the insurgency. The second inaugural address could not alienate the already marginalized white Northern Democrats, as the actions of their Southern secessionist brethren made the popular Party something of a political pariah in the Unions eye .In the years leading to Lincolns re-election, Democrats in the Union never gave speeches, framed resolutions, or took any stance of progressive thought for fear of eschewing Southern egalitarian support. The issue of slavery, for example, wa s pivotal in Democratic thought and political action. Though touted by the president as two hundred and fifty years of unrequited toil and inherently frowned upon by God and morality, slavery was a divisive issue among Northern Democrats to conjecture the least (line 43). Though pockets of the North such as naked England were adamantly abolitionist, there was no significant shortage of support for the institution of slavery on the grounds of racial superiority. For every popular expression of the black man as human, there was a derisive counterpart that dehumanized the so-called Negro cause (McClure 88). Consequently, Lincoln faced problems among the Northern elite, who by using popular racist language and symbols managed to link popular sentiments to party agenda (McClure 89).Perhaps one of the most pivotal and important issues of the Lincoln administration, slavery and its abolition may very well have served as the archetype of social and political alter for the American natio n. Proponents of slavery were as such supportive of the institution for more than social or perceived moral imperative in appendage to being burdened by the incapacitation of agrarian and some industrial facilities at the end of the Civil War, the American economy would be burdened by the throwing of 4 million former slaves onto the world with virtually nothing no land, no savings, little or no schooling, no experience of politics, the legal system, or the free economy (Golay 208). Despite the presidents energy for abolition and moral recompense with the equivocation of every drop of fall drawn with the lash to another drawn by the sword (lines 44-45), there was a rift in opinion over how best to deal with the economic windfall of supporting four million newly broken freed slaves. The president encountered significant opposition from both parties in supporting the freed slave Lincoln had established a bureau expected to protect the freed people, propagate emergency relief to th e destitute, build an equitable free labor system, and establish a system of basic education throughout the South (Golay 208). The support for the said bureau would naturally come from Reconstruction efforts, but few members of White AmericaNorth or Southwould give meet priority to freed black slaves as they would confederate states.Lincoln faced the tone of two types of nationalism the nationalism defined by the then-predominantly Republican Union and the nationalism defined by what was a predominantly Democratic Confederacy. blue jean Baker wrote in Affairs of Party The Political Culture of Democrats in the Mid-Nineteenth Century thatIn the years before the Civil War one way to express nationalism was to be a Democrat. Some Americans still suspected political parties of subversion, but by mid-century the Democracy had emerged as an institution through which citizens could celebrate devotion to their country and at the same time favour particular programs, leaders, and ideals. N o longer was partisanship considered antirepublican. On the contrary, its character tended to evoke sentiment for the Union and thus forced Southern separatists like John Calhoun and William Yancey to attempt a replacement. In the North, however, the Democracy continued to flout unity (Baker 318).Once dominant in the public eye, the Democrats were faced with a new challenge and a new bane to overcome in the regaining of the Unions trust. While the issue of partisan link was not a topic nearly as frequented then as it is today, a considerable Democratic identity was established with the disaffected South it was not for some time that the Democratic Party championed the Northern caucus. By comparison, Republicans in the mid-nineteenth century were equally as suspect to national dissolution, as the prevailing theme of the reigning Democratic party was inescapably nationalistic, rivet on the preservation of union, liberty, and constitution (Baker 318).Lincolns Second Inaugural Addres s became an insightful indicator of the requisite political, social, and economic changes that were necessary in the reconstruction of post-bellum America. Galvanizing the countrys opposing social and political factions, Lincolns address was a masterful piece of talk that testified to both his earnest nature and shrewd understanding of not just politics, but the political climate of America and its fragile stasis. Its diction, alliteration, and religious allegories worked unitedly in a patchwork of executive prestidigitation Lincolns delivery was almost a political sleight of hand in its theme and scope. Though he would be assassinated in a matter of a few months following the delivery of the speech, Lincoln achieved political normalcy in the aftermath of Americas most debilitate war, garnering the collective enmity of an entire half of a nation and the hold of the remainder. To his opponents, Lincoln was a democratically-elected aspiring autocrat as evidenced by John Wilkes Boo ths infamous quote sic semper tyrannus. To his glad and loyal supporters, however, Lincoln managed the unthinkable the abolition of slavery and the retention of American unity.BIBLIOGRAPHYBaker, Jean H. Affairs of Party The Political Culture of Northern Democrats in theMid-Nineteenth Century. Bronx Fordham U P, 1998.Golay, Michael. A Ruined Land The End of the Civil War. New York John Wiley Sons, 1999.McClure, Alexander K. Abraham Lincoln and Men of War-Times SomePersonalRecollections of War and Politics During the Lincoln Administration. Lincoln U of Nebraska P, 1997.Striner, Richard. Father Abraham Lincolns harsh Struggle to End Slavery.Oxford Oxford U P, 2006.Thurow, Glen E. American Political Religion. Albany State U of Albany P, 1976.White, Ronald C. Lincolns Greatest Speech The Second Inaugural. New YorkSimon Schuster Press, 2002.Rable, George C. The Confederate Republic A Revolution Against Politics

Gender inequality in Education

awaken in existity in EducationThis oerlay has been written because the chief(prenominal) aim of this query project is to investigate if in that respect is a shake upual practice commotion between sons and girls exploit in schools. Whether the education system was colorful to one fetch upual activity? If so what atomic number 18 the brokers which cause this? Are in that location any possible solutions that stick emerge be employ to exculpate this? The reasons poop why boys do non achieve as rise uphead as girls in school. The objectives of this publish be to discuss, to discover and investigate why thither is grammatical g nullifyer go a wish why boys lack behind girls. This idea examines to discuss the causes of this sexual practice break of serve in schools for girls and boys. The issues that will be discussed in this report argon as follows the history behind the grammatical gender faulting in achievework forcet in schools because boys were once d oing break than girls. The reason for this was that girls had to uphold home has housewives withal girls had to gain much marks in 11 cock sealed exams than boys. other aspect that will be looked at atomic number 18 schools as well feminised which whitethorn give an advant mount to girls. Other ideas which will be argued argon how the curriculum is implemented and how subjects be assessed in schools. Other factors that may involve boys achievement in schools ar peer pressure from friends if they produceed overweight in school they may be stereotyped as a geek also acquirement styles may affect attainment. But does favorable class and heathenity affect the achievement of children in schools. nevertheless(prenominal) there argon subjects that privilege boys than girls and vice a versa such(prenominal) as boys do emend than girls in maths and science however on the other muckle girls do advance in side of meat. This report will evaluate factors that end impr ove this chap by having one bring up classes and exclusive sex schools. The report will contrast the for and the against arguments of having single sex classes and single sex schools. Definitions of the word gender differencesLiterature reviewThere has been a can of work done on boys and girls achievement in schools narrowing follow through the col. In 1960 young boys were 21 times more(prenominal)(prenominal) than potential to construe university than girls. It can be suggested that the changing world is having an impact on boys achievement in terms of boys attainment in schools and that of girls winner in schools. It was suggested that the equal pay act and that of the sex discrimination act (1970) changed the emphases of education insurance and that can be noted as a rudimentary design of history that changed the objectives of girls in terms of careers and attainment. Girls had to achieve high marks in their 11 plus examination than boys. Elwood J et al (1998, p.5) asserts that 11 plus examination children used to be selected for supplementary schooling, were deliberately skewed so that girls had t achieve relegate endpoints than boys. The period 1950-1960 found the reasons behind this was because boys matured new-fashionedr than girls which would not bind been fair to leave out boys from attending grammar schools. But in 1990 their was concern over boys achievement in schools.It has been suggested that in societies such as the UK the socialisation process as it operated at least(prenominal) up to the 1970s meant that many parents socialised their daughters to show dependence, obedience, conformity and domesticity whereas boys were come to be dominant, competitive and self-reliant. Also when young children saw their parents acting out traditional gender posts many would perceive these roles as natural and necessary leading girls and boys to imagine their futures as fulltime housewives and mothers and as fulltime paid employees resp ectively. In schools t separatelyers praised girls for maidenlike qualities and boys for masculine qualities boys and girls were encouraged to opt for traditional priapic and feminine subjects and consequently for traditional priapic and fe male careers. Furthermore in certain sections of the push-down store media and especi e precise last(predicate)y perhaps in teenage magazines girls were encouraged to recognize the all importance of finding Mr. Right and settling down to a flavour of blissful domesticity in their traditional housewife-mother roles. Cole (2006, p.26) suggests that even before children go to school their parents will treat a boy and girl very different. Even in society throughout history this has occurred. A administrate of explore has gone into this your gender is an issue from the minute you are born. automatically society will say how a girl will deliver and how a boy will behave. If it is a boy, oh hes like that because hes a boy and boys al represen tations take longer to grasp it.Girls, even in the previous(a) 1960s were more probable than boys to gain 5 or more GCE Ordinary take breathe grades. From the 1960s to the eighties the per centums of girls and boys gaining 5 or more GCE Ordinary Level stretch out grades gradually change magnitude alone the so-called gender gap in educational attainment increased peculiarly once the GCSE was introduced primarily because girls have maintained their traditional higher(prenominal) attainment takes in Arts and humanities subjects exactly also trim and in or so long time overturned the traditional attainment gaps in party favour of boys in Mathematics and information subjects. The GCSE was introduced in 1988 and from whence onwards the female- male gender difference in educational achievement at GCSE train widened as differences between the higher female pass rates and the male pass rates in Arts and Humanities widened and females narrowed or virtuallytimes reversed t he traditional higher male pass rates in Mathematics and science subjects. It has been claimed that the relative amelioration of female educational achievements can be explained partly by the nature of the new GCSE line of merchandises .This has been disputed, however, on the yard that several factors have contri justed to these trends. By the late 1980s females were more in all probability than males to gain two or more advanced(a) Level passes and during the parentage of the 1990s they also became more likely to gain 3 or more A level passes. Females also soon became more likely than males to gain A grades in al culturely all Advanced Level subjects Nevertheless gender differences in examination performance at Advanced level are smaller than at GCSE level.In 2007-2008 69.3% of girls and 60.1% of boys achieved 5 or more GCSE commit A*-C passes 51.3% of girls and 42.0% of boys achieved 5 or more GCSE Grade A*-C passes including incline and math. The gender difference in ex amination success varies considerably from subject to subject. For example girls in 2007-2008 girls outperformed boys by 14% in English, 16% in designing and Technology, 9% in Modern strange Languages, 17% in Art and Design and 12 % in English Literature further by scarcely 1% in Mathematics, 2% in Core Sciences, 1% in Chemistry and 2% in Classical Studies. Although the data are not presented here Girls are like a shot more likely to gain A* and A grades in most barely not all GCSE subjects.Other areas the re see will boil down on are schools too feminised, advantage for girls but disadvantage for boys. Hutchings (2002) states the forge feminisation is used simply to refer to the fact that there are more female teachers than male, especially in the primary sector. (Biddulph, 1997 cited in Skelton et el, 2007) state that the current situation is often presented as one which is detrimental to the educational experiences and opportunities of boys with the implication that boys do better when taught by men teachers. (Skelton et el, 2007) suggest that some other use of the phrase feminisation of schools is in relation to the idea that the prepotency of females has led to the delivery of the curriculum, sagaciousness practices and the management and organisation of the classroom seeded playerly more feminine in nature. Female teachers are more diffuse on boys than male teachers also male teachers can be role models for pupils which will enable the child to be incite to canvas and acquire in education.Findings have suggested that it is vital to keep the subjects taught in curriculum interest for children to learn about in class. This may enable children to be motivated to learn and dumbfounds rid of the label of boringness of lessons. Jackson (2006, p.127) states that if students find the curriculum boring, it provides junior-grade incentive for them to counter the uncool to work discourse.Methods of assessment have been identified particularly a great deal as a mark factor in this bias against boys. An increased amount of assessed coursework has been suggested to explain boys doing less nearly at GCSE and A levels, with the argument being that boys do less well at coursework because of their preferred acquirement styles (Skelton et al, 2007). Girls do less well at sudden death exams (timed exams previously unseen by the candidate) which rely on last-minute revision and require self-confidence. This latter form of assessment has been argued to favour boys, and was the basis for O level exams (the exams that preceded GCSEs in Britain). Bleach, 1998, cited in Skelton et al, 2007 In fact, however, girls results were already improving before the GCSE assessment model was introduced. And further, Arnot et al. (1999) discuss how a simplification in the coursework component in public examinations in the 1990s did little to alter the pattern of gender achievement (Skelton et al, 2007).Another issue could be masculinity peer pres sure from friends Jackson (2006, p.74) states that the uncool to work this relation is suggesting that if boys work hard at school they will not be cool. (Jackson, 2006, p.84) Those who seem to be most disadvantaged as a result of the discourse are those who attempt to balance academician work and popularity but can not manage to do two favoredly. This is a sizable predictor in a lot of schools, this is seen as social spatial relation of pupils adopts to be popular and be part of a group. A lot of pupils will feel being unpopular is not as good as anything else. Also it will lead to negative impact. some(prenominal) girls and boys have to act as they are chilled, relaxed, laid back when it comes to the academic side of work.As the relative rate of female educational procession increased it came to be argued that this might be explained to some extent by biological factors. Experiments investigating the brain activities of male and female babies suggested that differences in the structures of female and male brains respectively may mean that females have genetically fit(p) linguistic advantages which would explain females especial facility with terminology found subjects. It was also suggested that girls earlier maturity means that they can concentrate more in effect and are better organised especially in relation to course work. This was considered to be a significant point because the relative improvement in female GCSE results was associated especially with the introduction of coursework- ground assessments which had been absent from the GCE Ordinary Level examinations which the GCSE replaced. as yet in relation to these theories it should be noted that male-female differences in Advanced level language examination results are small, that the relationships between physical and intellectual maturity are uncertain and that gender differences in examination results cannot be explained only by the presence or absence of coursework.Other factors tha t may affect attainment are different learning styles, both boys and girls learn differently, but we need to be careful we do not stereotype on gender. When looking at the gender debate it has been suggested by Coffield (2004) that consideration to learning styles is important when establishing the link as to why there is a gap between boys and girls due to peer pressure for the boys what their friends may think if they achieved well in school, the way boys are assessed in schools for instance boys do better in exams than coursework. Examples of these could be boys would prefer to learn kinaesthetically by doing things such as experiments or activities and girls would learn well visually by seeing. pursual in learning styles has grown rapidly in recent years and perceived differences in the learning styles of boys and girls are one of the most frequently expressed explanations for the gender gap in achievement. This argument is also based on the presumption that if boys are natural ly different to girls because of their biological make-up, then it follows that they will have different approaches to learning (Noble and Bradford, 2000 Gurian, 2002). Studies have shown that the vast volume of boys and girls prioritise a teachers individual ability as a teacher, and their level of care for their students, rather than a teachers gender. Skelton et al (2009), Francis et al (2008).Boys to better in maths than girls research by Hargreaves et al into pupils stereotypical attitudes to mathematics and English has shown that stereotypes succeed among pupils, with most believing that maths is a boys subject where boys do better, and English a girls subject where girls do better. DfES (2007, p. 3) Boys outperform girls in maths at Key Stage 2, and continue to outnumber girls at higher level maths. But there is a large gender gap favouring girls in English. On the other hand girls do better in English than boys On the other hand women do better on reading light and vocabu lary than men do. APA report state that some verbal t asks show substantial mean differences favouring females.Whitepaper on gender differences in achievementSocial class and ethnicity according to Cole (2006, p.29) states that Gender is not the strongest predictor of attainment. Social class attainment gap at key stage 4 is three times as wide as gender gap. DfES (2007, p.3) Analysis of the attainment data shows that other factors or a combination of factors, such as ethnicity and social class, have a greater bearing on educational achievement than gender considered on its own. Gender differences in educational achievement are far smaller than social class differences in educational achievement. Students of both sexes who are eligible for discharge school meals are far less likely than students of both sexes unentitled to be successful at both levels of the education system. Some ethnic differences in educational achievement are also greater than gender differences in educational achievement.Statistics on the gender gap between boys and girls progress at each end of the distribution of grades also varies by gender. Girls are more likely than boys to gain an A* grade at GCSE. Boys are a little more likely to gain a G grade at GCSE or to gain no GCSEs at all. The largest gender differences (a female advantage of more than ten percentage points on those gaining an A*-C GCSE) are for the Humanities, the Arts and Languages. Smaller gender differences (a female advantage of vanadium percentage points or less) tend to be in Science and Maths subjects. Some of these achievement patterns have been relatively stable over 6 decades of exam results, particularly in English Language and Literature, French, Art and Design and Religious Studies. There have been changing patterns over the years. In Maths, there has been a shift from a male advantage averaging 4 percentage points prior to 1991 to a slim female advantage of 1-2 percentage points in recent years. In Geogra phy, there has been a widening of the gap in girls favour, and in History, there has been variation but with girls direct doing much better than boys.This research will explore possible solutions we can use to solve this gap such as single sex schools which may garter girls to speak out. Times online (2004) Girls in mixed classrooms refrain from speaking up and answering questions. Another way of solving the gender gap is by having single sex classes in mixed schools so that teachers can assure different learning styles for boys. Research has shown that girls obtain better results in single sex schools in comparison to mixed schools Curtis (2009). Odone (2004) conversely, that boys do not wishing to determine foreign languages or shine in English belles-lettres in case they are mocked as poofs. Garner (2008) Differences in how male and female brains work mean single-sex schooling will make a comeback leading head mistress in the free-living. However the disadvantages of sex schools Blair (2006) Girls schools feature highly in the league tables because they are highly selective, their children come from particular social backgrounds and they have excellent teachers. BBC News (2006) While both single-sex and co-education have passionate advocates, half a century of research has so far revealed no striking or consistent differences one way or the other. Odone (2004) Children, will inhabit a mixed society later, so let them start young, with mixed classes. Younger et al (2005, p.89) found that boys and girls may feel more at ease in single sex classes, feel more able to interact with learning and feel sluttish to show interest in the lesson without inhibition. It was felt that there can be positive effects on achievement for boys in modern languages and girls in science and maths. (Dcfs (2007)MethodologyThe methods that will be used to gather research for this project will be as follows the use of books to get learning on issues affecting gender differen ces in achievement at schools and what idealogue have already found more or less this agenda. The lucre will be useful for this research project because you can research recent and up to date statistical information on the gender gap and get government published on this debate. Journals will be useful for the research project to collect recent data and changes in the debate around boys and girls achievement in schools and narrowing down the gap. These methods of researching are called secondary research. alternative research is the use of material, which has been researched by someone else. The different research methods for secondary research are as follows technology based research is to do with researching from the computer to get your information, which has a lot of benefits such as the internet provides online libraries e-books, journals and encyclopaedias such as infed. The main electronic databases that will be used for this research are as follows education research comp lete, education online and SwetsWise. The key read that will be used will be based on gender differences and achievement in school also how the search found a number of journals, but some were irrelevant, to the research topic. anticipate engines help you through the mass of information on the internet two most popular search engines are Bing, google advanced search and google educatee also on the internet you can search for newspaper articles. However web sources may not always be reliable so researchers need to find out how accurate the information there are number of ways to assess the accuracy of the sites. According to Walliman and Buckler (2008, p.92) equation the data with other sources and is it biased many use the web to promote ideas.The reasons for choosing to do the research project as a desk workplace were as follows to find out what has already been researched in this field and arguments that have already been produced around this agenda. However the reasons for no t choosing the fieldwork approach method were because it will be time consuming and availability of schools to carry out the research is trammel and difficult to get a place in schools to do observations.The advantages of the desk study approach are as follows able to collect, understand and interpret data also to limit costs such as travelling costs. The disadvantages of desk study may be the availability of books from the libraryIn contrast the advantages of the interrogate approach (structure and unstructured) advantages of structured interviews are time management can be controlled, results are simple to gather and the questions are securely set in advance. the disadvantages of structured interviews are there might be other questions to ask and you cant develop on questions. The advantages of unstructured interviews are there is a lot of time, you can develop questions and it is a relaxed method. Disadvantages of the interview approach are as follows The disadvantages of unstr uctured interviews are the interview can simply be a chat, not all the participants are asked the same questions and only some of the questions are asked.In choose observation is when a participant gets their information from view from far. Direct observation is when a participant obtains information by have with the circumstances they are watching. Advantages of the observation approach (direct and indirect) the advantages of observations are actions can be seen in the normal surroundings and observations can both be direct or indirect. Disadvantages of the observation approach (direct and indirect) the disadvantages of observations are they are lengthy and not consistent.Qualitative vs. quantitativeAnalysisThere was clear turn out that in the era of the 11+ pass marks were set higher for girls than for boys so as to prevent girls from taking a disproportionate share of Grammar tame places. From the early mid-fifties until the late 1960s girls were less likely than boys to be e ntered for GCE Ordinary Level examinations. In any case in the 1950s and early 1960s many pupils left school at age 15 having taken no official national examinations. The candidate pass rate in GCE O Level examinations was higher for girls than for boys from the early 50s to the late 1960s so that despite the higher entry rates for males the percentages of male and female school leavers actually passing 5 or more GCE O levels were fairly similar although females did usually outperform males by 1-2% each year. This general statistic masked the facts that girls outperformed boys by considerable margins in Arts and Humanities subjects and that boys usually outperformed girls but by smaller margins in Mathematics and Science subjects.In order to analyse the relative educational improvement from the 1980s onwards we must distinguish between factors accelerating the rate of female improvement and factors restricting the rate of male improvement. Females and males educational achievements have improved but the rate of female improvement has been faster and this widened the female-male achievement gap especially at GCSE level. Remember, however, that gender, social class and ethnicity are interconnected. Girls are more successful than boys in all ethnic groups but middle class boys are still more educationally successful than working class girls in all ethnic groups. Gender differences in educational achievement are smaller than social class differences in educational achievement and some ethnic differences in educational achievement.Research has shown that Of the 71,286 girls who sat GCSEs in single-sex schools over the three-year period, on average all did better than predicted on the basis of their end of primary SATS results. By comparison, of the 647,942 who took exams in mixed-sex schools, 20% did worse than expected. This means that girls in single sex schools can be expected to do better in their school, in comparison to girls in mixed schools.Studies have sh own that girls in mixed sex classes tend to refrain from speaking up and boys dont wishing to study English to avoid being mocked as poofs, thence single sex schools would help to resolve this issue as they will pull back this pressure between the genders and allow both boys and girls to participate freely. Also unity sex schools will benefit students as male and female brains work differently. Girls can relate to emotions more and are seen as caring and tattling(a) they can sit and talk about emotions whereas boys are more likely to do practical things instead of talking of emotions, hence why boys flush it in English. So perhaps, as this leading head mistress, quoted in the Independent suggests, single sex classes need to be implemented to meet the learning strategies of the different sexes.Mainly English and foreign languages is where I believe that pupils need a gender based curriculum as was suggested by the DFES (2007) report it remarks that of the core subjects, the gend er gap is widest in English overall, the differences in language and literacy skills are given as the main cause of the gender gap in attainment. It is suggested that there is around 10% children leaving education with 5 Cs and above girls since 1968 have been slowly achieving better than boys according to Dcfs report into gender. It is a step towards the well researched idea that genders learn differently therefore it is possible to suggest that gender specific learning amongst boys and girls will close the statistical gap of attainment. Although the dfes report suggest that is no substantial evidence to back this up I believe that children will benefit from this approach.Another issue that I found is that boys tend to do better on spatial skills they find mathematics and science more interesting to learn about. But on the other hand girls to better on verbal, comprehension and vocabulary skills than boys do.This table shows the gap in 1989 was just 6% but 10yrs later it had increa sed to 10%. It is suggested by S. Ball (2008) that this gap is an overall statistic and not subject specific he suggests that in 2004 the deviations of this gap was just 1% and that in some subjects boys achieve better results than girls therefore it is not valid to say that all boys or all girls achieve less in GCSE levelsConclusionsIn conclusion doing this research project on boys and girls achievement in schools and narrowing down the gap. The research found that there is not as big as a gap as great deal thought. The main factors that affect boys achievement are peer pressure and schools too feminised. The research also found that single sex schools and classes do not make that much difference but it found that girls have more confidence to participate in class discussion. In conclusion, the history of the gender gap shows that the gender gap itself has always been present in education, but was hidden by the advantage given to boys in 1960s, and it was often harder for girls to progress into further education, since it was not expected of them, therefore affecting the gender gap in the sense that there were lower numbers of girls then boys progressing. over the years boys have improved and so have girls, maintaining the gender gap but showing that boys are adapting to the changes and are working harder to keep up. The gender differences in boys and girls does show that they learn in different ways, and these differences are, now more then ever, taken into account in teaching methods, lesson planning and assessment methods, and there is evidence showing that Boys are struggle back at A levels, with their results improving more rapidly than girls (BBC, 2004),however, it is important to recognise that there are girls and boys who wont fit into these gendered patterns and therefore focus should still be placed on the individual and not the biologically predisposed expectations, (Phoenix, 2004, pg 34). We could also conclude that this improvement could be the first sign that boys are now realising they will have to compete to maintain their place in the workforce, as history shows women have been seen as servants to the state (Steedman, 1985, cited in Arnot and Ghaill, 2006, pg 19). This oppression of women, like other cases where parts of society have been repressed (e.g. repression of the afro-Caribbean population), resulted in women fighting or rebelling for their place in society, which is not something the male population has had to do. wherefore acting as a source of motivation for women to make sure they are treated as equals and to progress in life, where as men have missed out on this and until recently, have lacked the motivation to fight for their place. Now men are in a place of ambition with women and are now beginning to see that its not particularly expert to under-achieve (BBC, 2004).